AMERICAN PARTY SYSTEM HISTORY

(Source of lecture notes on the history of the American party system: American Political Parties: Social Change and Political Response,, Everett C. Ladd Jr., 1970, W.W. Norton and Co; Transformations of the American Party System, 2nd edition, Everett C. Ladd and Charles D. Hadley, 1978. W.W. Norton and Co; Dynamics of the Party System, James L. Sundquist, 1973, Brookings Institution)

A) EARLY DISTRUST OF POLITICAL PARTIES-

• 1) Benevolent rule by the elite- rich felt they were obligated to rule (their civic duty to serve in office), and believed they promoted interests of everyone. Elitist rule with property holding requirements for voting and officeholding. Politics was not a profession, small salaries.
• 2) Parties were distrusted, called "factions." Madison in the Federalist Papers defined a faction as "citizens united by a common interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens or the community's interests."
• 3) President Washington in Farewell Address warned against the rise of political parties, believing they inflamed the public passion and let foreign powers exert influence over us
• 4) There was no concept of a party as being a regular, necessary instrument to organize citizens views and to express them

B) RISE OF THE FIRST PARTY SYSTEM

• 1) Washington unified Americans, committed all factions to the federal constitution
• 2) Parties arose at the federal level first. Factions formed around Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton (Federalists), and Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson (Republicans). Factions arose in Congress by 1792
• 3) Hamilton as Secretary of Treasury was pro-industrialization and desired: government led by elite of rich, well born, intelligent; a strong national government under a strong President; the national government would back business and help industry; he established the national bank. Jefferson opposed Hamilton's policies, since he preferred a nation of small farmers, where people would own land and have a stake in government and society.
• 4) Washington's retirement was a spur to party building, since he had been above parties, while President John Adams was criticized by Jefferson. The 1796 election was the last one where most candidates ran without party labels. Congressional caucuses chose candidates to run for President. By 1800 modern parties were on the scene, and diligent Republican organizations helped Jefferson win the Presidency in 1800.

C) FIRST PARTY SYSTEM: FEDERALISTS VS. REPUBLICANS (unrelated to current Republican party)

• 1) Federalists were party of national idea and nation-building. Republicans represented parochial idea of state autonomy.
• 2) Federalists wanted the government to promote business expansion, while Republicans desired an independent agricultural economy.
• 3) Established elites in most states were Federalists; they had old wealth, respected occupations, and education. Their challengers were Republicans.
• 4) Factionalism split both parties. Moderate Federalists were headed by President John Adams; High Federalists led by Hamilton were more elitist and clearly anti-democratic. Republicans had moderates such as President Jefferson, who after becoming President in 1801 defended the national union, and granted legitimacy to some manufacturing elements; extreme states' rights Republicans desired pure agrarianism.
• 5) Federalists viewed the French revolution as a lower class revolution that was a menace to mankind; they were pro-British in foreign policy, and Hamilton wanted war against France. Republicans were sympathetic to revolutionary France, desired a pro-France foreign policy.
• 6) Federalists had a New England base of support, while Republicans were based more in the South. Republicans became the majority party in America in 1800, and Federalists began to disappear. Federalists nominated last Presidential candidate in 1816, who won only three states. After 1819, Federalists competed on statewide basis in only two states.

D) WHY FEDERALISTS DIED OUT

• 1) Elitist party, slower to respond to democratic style
• 2) Bad image, viewed as anti-democratic. Hamilton desired a government of the elite, had a monarchist and aristocratic image.
• 3) Alien, Sedition, and Naturalization Acts of 1798 gave party an anti-democratic image
• 4) Party split in 1800 between Adams and Hamilton
• 5) Party organization was weak and incomplete
• 6) Absence of inherited party identification among public
• 7) Public distrust of parties, viewed as necessary evil
• 8) Majority of public was agricultural
• 9) Anti-war Hartford Convention of 1814 gave party an image of disloyalty

E) ORDERLY TRANSITION OF POWER (1800)

• 1) Federalist principles continued after 1800, as Federalist federal judges had life terms; Chief Justice of Supreme Court was John Marshall, a Federalist.
• 2) Marshall Supreme Court from 1801 thru 1835 promoted policies of national power and business interests: Marbury vs. Madison established judicial review; Fletcher vs. Peck upheld property rights and sanctity of contracts; McCulloch vs. Maryland upheld national bank; Gibbons vs. Ogden used interstate commerce clause to increase federal power.
• 3) Moderate Republican Presidents adopted some Federalist policies. Jefferson kept the national bank, used federal power to purchase Louisiana, and instituted an embargo prior to the War of 1812. Later Presidents backed a protective tariff to help U.S. infant industries.

F) BRIEF ONE-PARTYISM UNSTABLE

• 1) After 1819, nearly all politicians flocked to the broad Republican party, causing the ideological and programmatic distinctiveness of the party to be blurred.
• 2) Era of Good Feelings was 1820 election, when Monroe was re-elected President without opposition. But party as an instrument for discipline or for faithful to rally about was not operative. Hence, Monroe couldn't influence Congress, and Congress was too fragmented to act coherently.
• 3) Multi-factionalism arose within the Republican party in 1824. Treasury Secretary Bill Crawford was Congressional caucus nominee, but only 20% of Congressmen participated. Some states were now providing for popular election of presidential electors, and the caucus appeared undemocratic. Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson were nominated by their state legislatures. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams was chosen by a Boston public meeting.
• 4) Corrupt Bargain- House of Representatives selected President as nobody received majority of electoral votes. Clay backed Adams, was made Secretary of State, Jackson backers were enraged as Jackson had led in popular vote.
• 5) Bifactionalism. Jackson's allies opposed Adams during his term, and called themselves Democratic Republicans. Adams followers were called National Republicans, having policies resembling the old Federalists.
• 6) Jackson defeats Adams in 1828, ushering in new era: Jacksonian democracy, characterized by direct democracy, popular will, any common man can hold office, liked mediocre, log cabin President. Jackson liked political parties, felt the majority will would be expressed through them, and minority party would also have to cater to people. Jackson liked laissez-faire free competition, since he felt all people had equal talent and gifts. The 1828 election saw the full democratization of the presidency, as the popular vote tripled and all states eventually provided for popular election of presidential electors. Democratic- Republicans shortened their names to Democrats.

G) SECOND PARTY SYSTEM: DEMOCRATS VS. WHIGS

• 1) Jackson is powerful President, takes actions that anger various groups, hence diverse anti-Jackson forces unify to oppose him and call themselves Whigs. Jackson's actions: vetoed extension of the national bank (even withdrew federal deposits from it despite congressional opposition; fired his unwilling Treasury Secretary; was censured by senate); defied Supreme Court decision and opposed Georgia Indians; opposed internal improvements (at least, those that didn't cross state lines); backed the union, opposed John C. Calhoun and South Carolina's state nullification of federal tariff (supported gradual reduction of tariff, though).
• 2) Party differences: Democrats. Democrats were pro-agriculture and liked state autonomy, desiring minimal national intervention and power; they resisted nativism and anti-Catholicism, and welcomed Catholic immigrants into their northern parties; they backed territorial expansion and Manifest Destiny, and under Democratic President Polk the U.S. acquired Southwest territory after war with Mexico; Democrats were strongest in the South, and Jacksonian Democracy philosophy is reflected in numerous elective offices in Mississippi.
• 3) Party differences: Whigs. Whigs were a diverse coalition of anti-Jackson forces, became an alliance of Northern businessmen and Southern planters; Whigs were pro-business, supporting federal government aid to business and commerce, and use of federal gov't to promote national growth; Whigs were more nativist and anti-Catholic, and in 1844 struck an alliance with nativists to back their local and congressional candidates while nativist party backed Whig presidential candidate; Whigs were stronger in New England states.
• 4) Party strengths. Democrats were the majority party, being pro-agriculture in a nation where most people were farmers. Democrats won congressional majorities in 9 of 11 elections from 1832 to 1853, and won all presidential elections from 1828 to 1856 except for two races won by popular Whig war heroes. Both parties were national parties, having significant support in all regions of the nation; both parties avoided divisive slavery issue, or backed compromises on slavery.

H) JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY-- political changes from 1828 thru 1860

• 1) More widespread and more direct democracy provided by states: property holding and religious qualifications were abolished, so all adult white males could vote and hold office; presidential electors were elected by popular vote; governors and other states offices now popularly elected; laws against Jews and Catholics holding office were abolished.
• 2) Nomination process made more democratic- convention replaces the legislative caucus. Conventions saw more activist participation, enacted platforms, saw rise of professional politicians.
• 3) Modern campaign forms developed: torchlight parades and mass campaigning by candidate supporters; campaign symbols like the log cabin; intense inter-party competition in all regions stimulated higher voter turnout; rise of public party identification.

I) THIRD PARTY REPUBLICANS REPLACE WHIG PARTY

• 1) Democratic Party becomes more associated with the South and pro-slavery position. Democratic Presidents of the 1850s--Pierce and Buchanan--and called "northern men of Southern principles"
• 2) Kansas-Nebraska Act, backed by Illinois Democratic Senator Stephen Douglas who had presidential ambitious, repealed Missouri Compromise and angered anti-slavery North. Republican Party grew in North, as party of compromise Whigs died and as northern Democrats were unelected.
• 3) Dred Scott decision rendered by a Southern Democratic-controlled U.S. Supreme Court completely upheld Southern pro-slavery philosophy. Republicans pledged to change composition of Supreme Court
• 4) South was angered by: northern states sometimes refusing to return runaway slaves; abolitionist John Brown's seizure of Harper Ferry, Virginia arsenal, and some northerners applauding his actions; northern Democrat Stephen Douglas supported popular sovereignty in the western territories, but he opposed Kansas' pro-slavery convention because he said it didn't reflect the views of a majority of the territory's residents; even those northerners who supported slavery remaining in the southern states would dream of its eventually dying out if it couldn't expand into the western territories.
• 5) Republican Lincoln wins Presidency in 1860 in a multi-candidate race. Five Deep South states, plus Florida and Texas immediate secede; four other Rim South states secede after Lincoln takes office. Regional parties replace national parties, and Civil War occurs.

J) THIRD PARTY SYSTEM, 1860-1896, REPUBLICANS VS. DEMOCRATS

• 1) The Republicans were started not merely as an anti-slavery party, but as a party that would promote the interests of northern industrialists. Hence, they were a very pro-business party, and during this era the Supreme Court protected businesses from state regulations. Republicans were strong in the north, and had little support in the South.
• 2) The Democrats were the more pro-agriculture party, and they were sympathetic to the white South's dislike of Radical Reconstruction. Hence they were strongest in the South, but also remained a competitive minority party in much of the North.
• 3) Neither party was the majority party. Republicans won all of the presidential elections except two, but after Reconstruction the popular vote totals were very close with the GOP benefiting from its "efficient" distribution of electoral votes. After Reconstruction ended in 1876, party control of Congress was generally split (Democrats usually controlled the House, and Republicans usually controlled the Senate).
• 4) Events and conditions had clearly helped convert the 3^rd party Republicans into a major party: their anti-slavery posture, and their leadership for an industrializing nation.

K) FOURTH PARTY SYSTEM, 1896-1932, REPUBLICANS VS. DEMOCRATS

• 1) Populist movement and party arose in the 1890s, calling for government regulation of railroads and other businesses, and the free coinage of silver. Democratic party absorbed the 3^rd party populists by nominating the populist William Jennings Bryan as their presidential candidate in 1896. However, this development made the party appear to be too agricultural, the party wasn't able to attract blue-collar worker support, and business leaders threatened their workers with firings. Republicans became the clear majority party by increasing their vote totals in various northern states such as the middle atlantic and midwestern states, while Democrats became more confined to the South.
• 2) Party differences: Republicans were the pro-business party, the party of an industrializing nation, and were strong in the North; Democrats were the more pro-agriculture party, nominated Bryan three times for president, and were strong in the South.
• 3) Republicans were the majority party, winning every presidential election except two. Democrats won in 1912 because of a GOP split, and Democrat Wilson was then reelected. Republicans generally controlled Congress as well.
• 4) Progressive movement of middle class reformers failed to upset the party balance, since both parties absorbed the progressives. Progressive Presidents included Republican Theodore Roosevelt and Democrat Woodrow Wilson. Progressive policies enacted: party registration stops fraud; party primary elections; 16^th amendment federal income tax; 17^th amendment popular election of U.S. Senate; 19^th amendment women vote.

L) FIFTH PARTY SYSTEM, 1932-1968, DEMOCRATS VS. REPUBLICANS

• 1) Major issue, Great Depression occurs during Republican Herbert Hoover presidency. Hoover and GOP opposed federal government action; Democrats in Congress favor federal relief efforts, unemployment insurance rise, welfare. Public votes Democratic because of dissatisfaction with Depression.
• 2) Democratic president Franklin D. Roosevelt implements New Deal programs, including relief, recovery, and reform. Relief- AFDC, CCC, PWA, WPA. Recovery- help industries recover, NRA, ICC. Reform- Wagner Act and NLRB protect labor unions, minimum wage, social security. Public hurt by Depression approve of liberal economic programs, reelect FDR three times, maintain Democratic-controlled Congress, and majority of public identifies with Democratic party. Democrats become party of an industrialized nation that recognizes that business must be regulated so that workers and consumers are not hurt by business excesses.
• 3) Historic Democratic base of white southerners and some Catholics is now expanded to include blue collar workers, more Catholics, poor people, African-Americans, intellectuals, Jews, and many average Americans. Republicans become confined to higher income and businessmen, and consigned to minority party status.
• 4) Republicans are a more conservative, pro-business, higher income party. Democrats are a more liberal, pro-labor, lower income party, boosted by the New Deal coalition.
• 5) Democrats win every presidential election during this era except two, when Republicans nominated war hero Eisenhower. Democrats controlled Congress consistently except for four years. Democrats also controlled great majority of state and local offices. Mississippi and the South voted Democratic even during the Eisenhower elections.

M) SIXTH PARTY SYSTEM, 1968-PRESENT, DEMOCRATS VS. REPUBLICANS, DEALIGNMENT ERA

• 1) The White South exits from the Democratic party. Civil rights issue causes 1948 States' Rights Party and 1968 George Wallace bid, but white southerners also like general conservatism of GOP (Goldwater in 1964, Nixon in 1972, Reagan).
• 2) Dealigning era, as neither party is the majority. Republicans win most of the presidential elections, except for 12 years of southern Democratic presidents, Carter and Clinton (plus Obama's new presidency). However, Democrats generally control Congress (except for a Reagan Senate from 1981-1986 and a Republican Congress from 1994-2006). The tossup presidential election of 2000 and the close election of 2004 illustrate this very competitive era.
• 3) Parties are weakened by: progressive era reforms, such as: primary elections; Democratic Party presidential delegate selection reform; civil service; campaign financing oriented towards candidates not parties; television rise; pollsters; modern campaign consultants; younger generation; education rise; deaths of party bosses.
• 4) Republicans are the conservative party, Democrats nationally are the liberal party. Note Reagan's conservative policies and Bush Jr.'s conservative federal judges. Also note how pro-choice and anti-Iraq war Democratic presidential hopefuls and party leaders are, with pro-life Pennsylvania governor Bob Casey denied the right to address the 1992 national Democratic convention, and with pro-Iraq war and 2000 Democratic vice presidential candidate Joe Lieberman denied renomination as Connecticut senator in 2006 by his own party.
• 5) With each party era lasting 32 or 36 years, this suggests a new party era began in 2000 or 2004. However, while Republicans won the presidency and kept control of congress in those years (except for a two-year senate period due to a party split), they actually lost the presidential popular vote in 2000, and then lost control of congress in 2006. Meanwhile, dissatisfaction over the financial crisis, a worsening economy, and foreign policy setbacks produced a Democratic President Obama in the 2008 elections, though Republicans regained control of the House in the 2010 midterm elections. Perhaps the concept of party eras is irrelevant today, as both parties have become so weakened in this era of dealignment that neither can gain consistent majority support. Perhaps this next party era will just be a continuation of the era of dealignment of the late 20th century.

POLITICAL PARTY ERAS

First- 1796-1828	Second- 1828-1860	Third- 1860-1896	Fourth- 1896-1932	Fifth- 1932-1968	Sixth- 1968-
Federalists	Whigs	Republicans	Republicans	Republicans	Republicans
National Power	Anti-Jackson coalition	Anti-slavery	Pro-business	Conservative	Conservative
Pro-business	Pro-business	Pro-business	North base	Pro-business	dealignment
Elitist	Nativist	North base	Majority pty.	High income	South base for pres.
Pro-Britain	New England base	Wins pres. elections
New England
Republicans	Democrats	Democrats	Democrats	Democrats	Democrats
States Rights	Agriculture	Agriculture	Agriculture	Liberal economics	Liberal
Agriculture	Catholics welcome	Anti-Radical Reconstructn	South base	New Deal coalition	dealignment
Less Elitist	Territorial expansion	South base		Workers and low income
Pro-France	South base	Sometimes controls Congress		Majority pty.
South base	Majority pty.
Majority Pty.

(Source of lecture notes on the history of the American party system: American Political Parties: Social Change and Political Response,, Everett C. Ladd Jr., 1970, W.W. Norton and Co; Transformations of the American Party System, 2nd edition, Everett C. Ladd and Charles D. Hadley, 1978. W.W. Norton and Co; Dynamics of the Party System, James L. Sundquist, 1973, Brookings Institution)