(Note: these learning modules encompass the actual class lectures, and are designed for those students who have to miss class through no fault of their own, and also as a refresher for all students. Bold print in the notes are what the professor writes on the board.)

LEARNING MODULE: WEEKS 5-6, Political Parties

Why do we even have political parties? They’re not mentioned in the Constitution. Many of the Founding Fathers distrusted them, regarding them as “factions,” which is defined as citizens united in a common purpose that is opposed to other citizens. In other words, self-interested, selfish. President Washington in his Farewell Address warned against the emergence of political parties. He had viewed himself as so public-spirited that he was above selfish interests, and he didn’t appreciate having his foreign policy (favored by the Federalists) blasted by the new Republican Party (not related to the current Republican Party). Yet can any real democracy survive with no political parties, or with only one political party? Some Founders might have thought that they were so public-spirited that they didn’t need any opposition, but they were a higher socioeconomic status group who were all white men. What about having only one party? Has that worked anywhere in the world in recent history? Let’s see- the Communist Soviet Union, Putin’s Russia, the “People’s” Republic of China. The list goes on.

So, it is good that we have had two political parties throughout our nation’s history. Why not have three, or four, or five? Well, look at Italy, Israel, and other multi-party systems. They have to come up with a majority coalition of enough parties to be able to select their Prime Minister (their chief executive). Whenever one of their parties gets upset and leaves the coalition, new elections are held, sometimes more than one election in a year. Very unstable situation.

Can a two-party system be harmful to citizens? Sure. Look at what we are living through right now. Many Democrats hate Trump with a passion. Many Republicans hated Biden and Obama. Every year it’s something new- Russian collusion, obstruction of justice, Ukraine aid, Coronavirus, the Capital riots, and now mass deportations. When Obama was President, Fox News Sean Hannity would attack anything that he did, and political newcomer Donald Trump even claimed that Obama wasn’t even born in the United States and that he was a Muslim (actually, his father met those criteria), and one GOP (Republican) Congressman screamed out “Liar” during one of his State of the Union Addresses. In Trump’s first term, only one Democratic congress member (Senator Joe Manchin of West Virginia) was even willing to shake his hand after the State of the Union address, the House Democratic Speaker Nancy Pelosi even tore up his speech. So why are things so divisive today? Well, we used to have two political parties that were very ideologically diverse. As late as the 1960s the Democrats did have many conservative southerners in their party, and the Republicans had many liberal and moderate northerners in their party. But then the two parties realigned themselves along strict ideological lines, as conservative southern Democrats fled to the Republican Party, and northern Republicans who weren’t conservative fled to the Democratic Party. Oddly enough, the political science professors in their national association in 1950 had applauded such a “responsible party system” where the two parties would stand for very distinct and different ideologies, since the professors liked this more British Parliamentary system. Well, they got their wish! Thanks for nothing!!

So what do you all think about our current political party system, and what we are living through? Any way to improve the situation?

America has had a two-party system throughout its history, but only since the Civil War have we had the current parties- the Democrats and Republicans. Our history can be divided into six different political eras, and the first two pre-Civil War eras were so unsettled that the names of the parties were different. The parties typically differed in terms of economic interests (agriculture versus business), region (South versus Northeast), and other issues. Since most Americans were farmers before the Civil War, the more pro-agriculture party, which was stronger in the South, was the dominant party.

The first party system was from 1796 thru 1828. The Federalists favored a stronger central government to promote business expansion, were more elitist, liked Great Britain, and were based in the northeast. The Republicans (no relation to current party) were for states’ rights since they favored an agricultural republic, liked republican France, were strong in the South, and won every presidential election beginning in 1800. The “elitist” Federalists died out, after supporting “anti-democratic” Alien, Sedition, and Naturalization Acts during Federalist John Adams’ administration, and after opposing the War of 1812 against Britain.

The second party system was from 1828-1860. By 1824 with everyone running as a Republican, that party split into two factions- the National Republicans and the Democratic Republicans. The latter faction won in 1828 with Andrew Jackson as president, and they shortened their name to Democratic. Democrats were like the old Republican Party, as they were pro-agriculture and strong in the South. Jackson was a strong president, who vetoed the national bank, removed the Indians, defied a Supreme Court decision, and opposed South Carolina’s nullification of a federal tariff, so his opponents unified into the Whig Party (named after the anti-monarchy party of Britain). Jackson was also a great believer in the Common Man (common white man), unlike the well-educated elitist Virginia Dynasty of presidents Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe. So during this era, the franchise expanded to include all adult white males (even those without money or property), more public offices became elected instead of appointed (including presidential electors), and parties began holding national conventions to select their presidential nominees (instead of just letting the King Caucus, congress members of that party pick them). Democrats were the dominant party. They wisely reached out to new immigrant groups who were Catholics, and they supported territorial expansion (war with Mexico, gaining the southwest territory, a popular stance in the South).

Hopefully, someone has picked the American Lion to report on. Now’s a good time to report on it, if you’ve had a chance to get it and finish it.

The third-party system was from 1860-1896. Well, the Whigs were a national party, so the bitter slavery issue tore them up, and they ceased to exist. The Democrats, who had had two Presidents in the 1850s who were labeled “northern men of southern principles”, were dominant in the South. A new political party opposed to slavery arose in the North and was dominant there; they were the modern Republican Party. This party was also very pro-business expansion and pro-industrialization. So we had two very regional parties, and when the Republican (Lincoln) won, the South seceded from the union. This Third party system was a simple one- the anti-slavery and pro-business Republican Party versus the more pro-agriculture Democrats who were sympathetic to the white Southern way of life. Like the current era, there was no real majority party, as presidential elections were really close; Republican presidents usually won and controlled the Senate, but Democrats had so many safe seats in the South that they usually controlled the House.

Thought question- do you think are country is as divided today as it was in the late 1850s? Look at how many lawsuits more liberal and Democratic states have filed against the Trump administration, and how many Republican-controlled states filed against Biden administration initiatives. Indeed, California will have a ballot initiative in 2028 on whether it should become an independent nation! If other West Coast and Northeast states joined them, we could have two nations- the United Red States of America, and the Disunited Blue States of America. Kind of like colonial British India after World War 2, divided into Hindu India and Muslim West and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh, a third country). Crazy Shaffer, never could happen. Funny, a U.S. News and World Report article in the 1970s talked about how ethnic diversity in the Soviet Union could break up that superpower, and we all laughed and said, never will happen.

Well, now we come to the last three party eras (including the Progressive Era), which are easy to ask a question about on the midterm essay exam.

The fourth party system from 1896-1932 started when the Democrats nominated the Populist William Jennings Bryan, who was so totally pro-farmer (for inflation to help debtor farmers, for example) that businessmen were terrified and warned their workers that they wouldn’t have jobs if he won. “We will not be crucified on a cross of gold,” Bryan screamed, as he opposed the hard money gold standard, and wanted free coinage of silver. Democrats made the mistake of nominating him for President three times, so Republicans became the majority party in America. Republicans were very pro-business and were strong in the northeast and Midwest. Democrats were pro-agriculture and largely confined to the South. Republicans won every presidential election except for 1912 when Democrat Woodrow Wilson won (previous Republican President Theodore Roosevelt disliked the current Republican President Howard Taft, so they both ran in the general election and split the Republican vote) and in 1916 when Wilson won re-election as a safe choice right before World War 1.

The Progressive Era during this party era was a middle-class reform movement that opposed powerful interests, such as big businesses and political bosses, and sought good honest government. It was so popular that both parties supported it- Republican Teddy Roosevelt and Democrat Wilson were both progressives. Progressives enacted an amendment requiring that states let the people vote for their U.S. Senators (bypassing state legislatures controlled by dominant businesses in the states), plus an amendment requiring that they permit women (believed to be more civic minded) to vote. States enacted voter registration laws to combat voter fraud, and required parties to hold primary elections to select their nominees (striking at the power of party bosses who dominated the old convention-caucus nominating system). Progressive policies included trust busting (breaking up business monopolies), conservation (national parks created), and a federal constitutional amendment permitting a federal income tax. This new tax was very important in starting the expansion of the federal government.

The fifth party system from 1932-1968 started when the stock market crashed, and our nation was plunged into the Great Depression. Since this happened on Republican President Herbert Hoover’s watch and during a Republican-controlled Congress, people voted for a change and Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) was elected. With 25% unemployment and so many people losing their jobs, their homes, and their life savings, Roosevelt’s liberal economic programs called the New Deal were very popular. They included: public jobs for the unemployed; welfare (Aid to Families with Dependent Children); a federal minimum wage; the Wagner Act protecting workers’ rights to join labor unions; Social Security; farm crop price supports. So added to the party’s traditional strength among Catholics (dating back to Jackson’s era) and white Southerners (due to the Civil War), Democrats now gained the support of the low income, blue-collar workers, most African Americans (where they could vote), liberals, Jews (historically liberal due to their oppression in Europe), intellectuals (fascinated by the possibilities of an active federal government), and most average Americans. Not only did FDR win four terms, but Republicans were only able to elect the war hero Eisenhower as President during this era. Democrats dominated the Congress for all except four years. Republicans kept getting attacked as the party of the rich and big business, and Democrats were liberal only on the popular economic issues.

The sixth party era is from 1968 to the present time. There is no majority party. So what happened to the Democrats? Well, they became a consistently liberal party on all issues, not just economics, and the non-economic issues were more controversial and divisive. When Democrats became the majority party they finally had a lot of support in the north, so northerners looked at the segregated racial system of the South and said, enough is enough. Their national convention in 1948 adopted a civil rights plank, and Presidents Kennedy and Johnson vigorously fought to enact the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act. Republicans meanwhile became more consistently conservative, nominating conservative Barry Goldwater from Arizona as their presidential nominee in 1964. Those events started the exodus of white southerners from the Democratic Party. That 1964 election between Goldwater and Johnson also started African Americans voting 90% Democratic. Then, the Democrats became viewed as more liberal on cultural and crime issues, being sympathetic to the protesters and rioters of the 1960s (who opposed police brutality, the Vietnam War, our traditional society), so Republican Nixon got elected president in 1968. The Democrats have also become pro-choice on the abortion issue which feminists liked, and pro-gay (LGBTQ) rights which was controversial among most voters until the Obama years. Democrats also became viewed as soft on national defense with the AFL-CIO refusing to endorse liberal McGovern in 1972 (so Nixon won re-election) and with Jimmy Carter “losing Iran” (and losing to Reagan in 1980). So Democrats lost a lot of support, and they lost their majority. But Republicans have not been able to become the new majority party. Republicans still have the problem of being perceived as the party of the rich, and of big business. They have also absorbed the Religious Right, so many view them as intolerant on women’s issues, gay issues, even racial issues. Trump’s anti-DEI (diversity, equity, inclusion) and his mass deportations of undocumented immigrants are also controversial stances.

American politics today are a real cliff hanger. In the twenty-five years of this century, Democrats Obama has won twice and Biden once, Republicans have won four times, but in both 2000 and 2016 the Republican (Bush, Trump) lost the national popular vote while winning election with an electoral college majority. Biden’s three predecessors have had a Congress where both chambers were controlled by their party for only two years each! Biden and Trump’s 2^nd term did have their parties controlling both chambers of Congress, but Biden lost the House majority in his midterm election, and Trump may have a similar problem. Indeed, the current party lineup is only 53 Republicans (and 3 often defect) and 47 Democrats in the Senate, and 220 Republicans and 213 Democrats (2 vacancies) in the House. So, what an exciting time to live in. Trump is not a typical Republican, he won blue-collar workers in critical Midwest states with his pro-jobs and trade war policies. But his rhetoric is controversial and divisive. His job approval rating was always below 50%, as it is today (such ratings predicted his re-election defeat in 2020). But Biden’s ratings were also not very high, generally below 50%. So, should be an exciting semester! Which of these two political parties do you think will win the 2026 midterm congressional elections and the next presidential election?? Which party do you prefer to win, and why?